Discovery of white hydrogen

 Discovery of white hydrogen in billion-year-old Canadian shield rock 

Within the Canadian Shield, hydrogen gas is steadily building up naturally among some of the oldest rocks on Earth. Now, for the first time, geochemists at the University of Toronto and the University of Ottawa have measured its presence, mapped its concentration and tracked its long-term accumulation, shedding new light on this source of natural, or white, hydrogen. The findings make it possible to assess the economic viability of this emerging energy source and point to a new approach to hydrogen exploration, one that could accelerate greenhouse gas reductions and expand hydrogen’s role in the clean energy transition. Earlier this year, scientists measured hydrogen flowing from billion-year-old Canadian Shield rocks through nearly 15,000 mine boreholes. The site could yield more than 140 tonnes of natural hydrogen each year. Ancient Canadian Shield rocks are quietly producing white hydrogen, a naturally occurring gas that could reshape the clean energy market. Scientists measured hydrogen escaping from mine boreholes near Timmins, Ontario. Each borehole released about 8 kg's a year. The finding gives natural hydrogen exploration something it lacked before: long-term, real-world evidence that underground hydrogen production can persist for years.

The gas is not being manufactured in a refinery or produced by splitting water with renewable electricity. It is forming naturally underground, accumulating in ancient rocks and groundwater, then escaping through boreholes drilled by miners. A new study has now provided something the emerging white hydrogen industry has badly needed: years of direct measurements showing that the gas can keep flowing over time. Researchers work, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, documents a decadal record of natural hydrogen production, storage and discharge. The measurements do not prove that Canada has discovered a giant ready-to-use fuel field, but they do show that hydrogen generated inside ancient continental rock can accumulate at rates worth investigating as a potential energy resource. Using data from an operating mine near Timmins, Ontario, the researchers show that boreholes at the site release an average of 0.008 tonnes of hydrogen/year, which is the weight of an average-sized car battery, and can continue to do so for 10 years or more. Such discharges could provide 4.7 million kilowatts of energy/year from a single location, enough to support the annual energy needs of over 400 households.

“The data from this study suggests there are critical untapped opportunities to access a domestic source of cost-effective energy produced from the rocks beneath our feet,” says University Professor Barbara Sherwood Lollar in the Department of Earth Sciences in the Faculty of Arts & Science at University of Toronto. “What’s more, this provides a ‘made in Canada’ resource that might be able to support local and regional industry hubs and reduce their dependence on importing hydrocarbon-based fuels”. The location of this hydrogen discovery is significant for another reason. Many of the same geological regions associated with natural hydrogen also contain valuable mineral deposits. Northern Ontario and Quebec, along with parts of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, are important areas for mining and exploration. The Canadian Shield contains deposits of nickel, copper and other resources, while exploration is also targeting critical minerals including lithium, cobalt and chromium. This geological overlap could create an unusual advantage. A mine that already has roads, shafts, boreholes, power systems and geological information may not need to build an entirely separate exploration system to investigate natural hydrogen. If economically recoverable hydrogen is present close to an operating mine, it could potentially be consumed locally rather than transported long distances. Transportation is a major issue for northern communities and remote industrial operations. Fuel must often be moved over large distances, increasing costs and adding emissions. A locally available hydrogen resource could eventually provide another option for industrial heat, electricity generation or other applications, although significant engineering and economic work would be required before that possibility becomes reality.

The basic chemistry begins deep underground. Rocks contain small amounts of radioactive elements such as uranium and thorium. As these elements decay over geological time, they release radiation which can split water molecules in surrounding rock and groundwater. One result can be the formation of molecular hydrogen, H₂. Given enough time, repeated reactions can produce hydrogen faster than it escapes, allowing the gas to accumulate in fractures, pores and groundwater systems. This makes white hydrogen different from most hydrogen used today. The word “white” describes hydrogen that occurs naturally in the Earth rather than hydrogen manufactured through an industrial process. Conventional hydrogen production can rely on fossil fuels, while green hydrogen uses electricity, often from renewable sources, to split water. Natural hydrogen changes the equation because the Earth itself supplies much of the chemical energy needed to create the gas. The Canadian Shield is especially interesting because it contains enormous areas of ancient crystalline and volcanic rocks which have remained underground for immense periods. The rocks around the Timmins mining district belong to geological environments where hydrogen-producing reactions can occur. They also contain the fractures and groundwater pathways which allow gases generated deep underground to move toward openings in the crust.

The existing global hydrogen economy is a $135-billion industry. Major uses are in methanol and steel production, though the single largest use of hydrogen is fertilizer production, making it a fundamental component in agriculture and critically tied to global food security. Currently, hydrogen used in these ways is produced by energy-intensive industrial processes which typically convert hydrocarbons found in fossil fuels such as petroleum, natural gas and coal, while releasing carbon monoxide and CO2 in the process. Even hydrogen generated from renewable energy sources, often described as green hydrogen, is energy intensive, costly to produce and requires long distance transport and storage. The discovery did not begin with a purpose-built hydrogen well. It emerged from an active mining environment. Boreholes are routinely drilled deep into the ground to investigate ore bodies, understand geological structures and manage underground operations. Those holes can also connect underground fluids and gases with the surface, effectively providing scientists with windows into the chemical processes taking place hundreds or thousands of metres below ground. For more than a decade, researchers monitored gases emerging from boreholes at the mine near Timmins. That long observation period is crucial. A single gas measurement can show that hydrogen exists, but it cannot easily answer whether the gas is a temporary pulse or part of a sustained underground system. The new record provides evidence that hydrogen discharge can continue for 10 years or more, turning a geological curiosity into something that can be evaluated in terms of resource potential.

If the observed rate is representative across the site, the researchers estimate that the nearly 15,000 boreholes could collectively discharge more than 140 tonnes of hydrogen/year. The associated energy potential was estimated at about 4.7 million kilowatt-hours annually, enough to cover the annual electricity needs of more than 400 households under the comparison used by the researchers. The number matters less as a promise of immediate electricity production than as evidence that natural hydrogen can be quantified. Until recently, much of the discussion surrounding geological hydrogen depended on models, geological clues and estimates of how much hydrogen might theoretically exist underground. Direct measurements sustained over years provide a more practical way to judge whether particular locations could support commercial development. That also changes how scientists might search for white hydrogen. Instead of looking only for enormous underground accumulations, researchers can examine places where hydrogen is already escaping. Existing mines, wells, tunnels and other subsurface infrastructure could provide valuable information about the concentration, movement and persistence of the gas before companies invest heavily in exploration.

To date, white hydrogen as a source for energy and manufacturing has largely flown under the radar, investigated almost exclusively by microbiologists seeking to understand the subsurface biosphere and to inform astrobiology and space exploration. The potential contribution of natural hydrogen in Earth’s crust to the current global economy has until now been largely speculative, based on models and theoretically available amounts, rather than on measured data. The U of T-led study is the first to document large volumes of hydrogen, and most importantly, discharges which are sustained for years. Natural hydrogen is produced over time through underground chemical reactions between rocks and the groundwaters in those rocks. Canada is blessed that vast amounts of its territories, especially on the Canadian Shield, contain the right rocks and minerals to create this natural hydrogen. The discovery should not be mistaken for proof that white hydrogen is already a commercial replacement for fossil fuels. Finding hydrogen underground is only the first step. Scientists and engineers still need to determine how much gas can be recovered, how quickly underground reservoirs replenish, what other gases accompany the hydrogen, how extraction would affect groundwater and whether production can remain economically viable over decades.

There is also an important distinction between hydrogen production and hydrogen use. Hydrogen itself does not release CO2 when used in a fuel cell, but the overall environmental impact depends on how it is extracted, processed, compressed and transported. Natural hydrogen could have a much lower carbon footprint than fossil-based hydrogen if it can be recovered with limited energy input and without significant leakage or environmental disruption. The researchers’ findings therefore point toward a resource assessment rather than an instant energy revolution. Their strongest contribution may be the demonstration that long-term monitoring can reveal whether natural hydrogen systems behave like persistent resources. This is a much harder question to answer than simply detecting hydrogen in a rock sample. The researchers say Canada has the potential to provide an alternative to industrially produced hydrogen, using natural hydrogen to provide cheaper and cleaner sources of the resource and without the need for hydrocarbons. Such innovative hydrogen resource development can then be extended worldwide to other nations where hydrogen-producing rocks also commonly exist. They further note that natural hydrogen is found in the greatest volumes in the same geologic settings that have historically been the focus of Canada’s mining industry, locations include Northern Ontario and Quebec, as well as Nunavut and the Northwest Territories.

“The common link is the rock,” says study co-author Oliver Warr, an assistant professor in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at University of Ottawa. “Natural hydrogen is produced in the same rocks where Canada’s nickel, copper and diamond deposits are found, and that are currently under exploration for critical minerals such as lithium, helium, chromium and cobalt. The co-location of mining resources and hydrogen production and use mitigates the need for long transportation routes to market, for hydrogen storage and major hydrogen infrastructure development.” Ancient continental rocks, groundwater systems and certain mineral-rich formations can provide the chemical ingredients needed for hydrogen production. The challenge is finding locations where production, accumulation and migration combine to create recoverable concentrations. The Timmins measurements offer a practical clue. Researchers can begin with places where natural hydrogen has already been detected, then measure concentration and flow directly over long periods. Existing mines and subsurface infrastructure may become especially valuable because they provide access to geological systems which would otherwise be difficult and expensive to study.

There is another scientific reason the discovery matters. Hydrogen is not only a possible future fuel. It is also food for certain microorganisms living deep beneath Earth’s surface. Natural hydrogen can therefore influence subsurface ecosystems and offers clues about how life survives in environments far removed from sunlight. The same chemistry has implications for astrobiology because similar water-rock reactions may occur on other rocky worlds. For now, the Canadian Shield discovery is best viewed as a door opening rather than a finished energy solution. Ancient rocks beneath Ontario have shown that they can generate, store and release measurable quantities of hydrogen for years. The next question is much bigger: how widespread are these systems, how much hydrogen can actually be recovered, and whether the economics work at scale. If those answers prove favorable, some of the world’s oldest rocks may become part of one of its newest energy industries. The authors suggest this untapped resource could reduce costs and carbon footprints for mines within Canada and provide a source of local clean energy for northern communities. Such a resource development model could not only offset carbon emissions for mining industries, but also potentially contribute to a meaningful reduction in the high costs of transporting fuel to communities in northern locations.

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Warming of The Atlantic Ocean

 Rapid and slower warming of The Atlantic Ocean have different effects  

      

For several years, climate scientists have shown that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) could come to a halt if the world warms too much. New research from Utrecht University shows that this picture is incomplete: The pace of warming also determines whether the AMOC stays stable. Scientists have found that the AMOC may be far more vulnerable to rapid warming than to temperature alone. When warming happens slowly, the ocean can adapt, but at faster rates similar to today’s, the massive Atlantic circulation could reach a tipping point at much lower temperatures. The fate of a crucial Atlantic Ocean circulation may depend not just on how hot the planet gets, but how quickly it gets there. Climate change could weaken the AMOC. The Atlantic’s massive ocean circulation may not have a fixed temperature breaking point, how fast the planet warms could determine whether it survives or collapses. The slower the warming, the more time the Atlantic Ocean has to adapt and the lower the near-term risk of an AMOC collapse. That has implications for how we think about climate policy: Much current policy, including the Paris Agreement, is aimed at limiting the eventual peak temperature. This is sometimes based on so-called overshoot pathways: temporary global warming past that limit, on the assumption that future technology could later bring the temperature back down.

Assumption is risky. A tipping point that induces an AMOC collapse could already be triggered during such a temporary overshoot. Once that happens, it can't simply be undone. It's comparable to coral reefs: Once they die off due to ocean warming, they don't come back, even if the temperature drops again later. If policy focuses only on the eventual warming peak, it may already be too late. The researchers therefore argue that emission reductions aimed at limiting the rate of global warming deserve their own place on the policy agenda. For years, climate scientists have warned that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) could eventually shut down if global temperatures rise too far. New findings from researchers suggest that temperature alone does not determine the fate of this major ocean circulation system. The speed at which the planet warms also appears to play a critical role in whether the AMOC remains stable. The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, or AMOC, is a vast network of ocean currents which carries warm water northward from the tropics. By moving heat around the planet, it strongly influences the global climate and helps maintain the relatively mild conditions found in Western Europe. Scientists have long viewed this Atlantic 'heat engine' as a system that could cross a tipping point. If that happened, the AMOC could transition from its current strong circulation to a much weaker state within decades. Possible triggers include growing amounts of melt water entering the ocean from polar regions as well as global warming itself.

AMOC is the system of ocean currents that transports warm water from the tropics northward. It plays a major role in redistributing heat across the planet and helps keep the climate in Western Europe relatively mild. This means that the system would shift from its present-day strong state to a much weaker state within decades. Until now, the AMOC was thought to tip and collapse around +4°C of warming. Researchers at the Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research Utrecht now show that there's more to the story. "Our results show there is not necessarily a fixed temperature beyond which the AMOC inevitably collapses," says lead author René van Westen. "The stability of the circulation depends on how fast the climate is changing." AMOC strength for a slow (+0.5 ppm yr⁻¹, black) and fast (+2.5 ppm yr⁻¹, blue) increase in atmospheric CO2. The findings indicate that two worlds reaching the same eventual temperature could experience very different outcomes for the AMOC depending on how quickly the warming occurred.

To test the importance of warming speed, Van Westen and his colleagues ran two versions of a climate model. In both simulations, atmospheric CO2 increased gradually, but the rate of that increase differed substantially. In one simulation, CO2 concentrations increased slowly (0.5 ppm per year). In the second, they climbed much more rapidly (2.5 ppm per year), which is comparable to today's rate. The contrast produced dramatically different results. When warming occurred slowly, the AMOC remained stable well beyond +4°C and did not collapse even after warming reached +5°C. Under the faster warming scenario, however, the AMOC collapsed at around +2°C. "We deliberately looked at a scenario that is much slower than what we're experiencing today," explains co-author Reyk Börner. "That allowed us to isolate the effect of the warming rate alone, independent of how warm it eventually gets." The researchers say the difference comes down to the ocean's ability to respond to changing conditions. "Under slow warming, the entire ocean, from the surface down to its deepest layers, has time to gradually reorganize and adapt to the changing conditions," says co-author Henk Dijkstra, professor of Dynamical Oceanography. "Under faster warming, the ocean simply can't keep up." Slow climate change gives the ocean more time to adjust throughout its full depth. When temperatures rise more rapidly, those adjustments cannot happen quickly enough, leaving the circulation more vulnerable to instability.

According to the researchers, the critical warming rate lies around 0.3°C/decade, a pace the world is already approaching. Van Westen compares it to driving a car: "If you're driving toward a wall, it makes sense to steer around it. To do that, you need to brake, otherwise you fly off the road. When it comes to global warming, the world is still pressing extra hard on the accelerator right now." The same research group has published on AMOC stability several times in recent years, each time from a slightly different angle. In 2024, the group showed that an increasing amount of melt water in the North Atlantic makes the AMOC more unstable. This mechanism had long been suspected, but this study was the first to demonstrate it in a modern, complex climate model. The results confirmed that there is a critical melt water threshold beyond which the AMOC becomes unstable. However, this threshold is unrealistically high, meaning that the present-day AMOC is unlikely to become unstable through this contribution alone. That study did not account for global warming or its pace. A later study explored several global warming scenarios. It concluded that the AMOC could reach a tipping point around 2060 under both an intermediate- and high-emission scenario. In those simulations, the tipping point occurred at approximately 2.5°C of global warming. The latest research helps explain why studies can produce different estimates for when the AMOC might reach a tipping point, as well as why temperature thresholds vary across climate models and emissions scenarios.

The AMOC does appear to have a critical threshold for melt water, but the researchers find no universal temperature threshold for its collapse. Instead, its stability depends partly on how quickly the planet warms. Faster warming leaves the AMOC more vulnerable, while slower warming gives the ocean more time to adjust and allows the circulation to remain stable under substantially higher levels of global warming. The findings suggest that slowing the pace of warming could reduce the near-term risk of an AMOC collapse by giving the Atlantic Ocean more time to adapt. The new findings suggest that the path taken toward a given temperature may matter alongside the temperature itself. The faster global warming occurs, the less time the Atlantic Ocean has to adjust, potentially increasing the vulnerability of one of the planet's most important circulation systems occurring around us.

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